Posts Tagged ‘planets’

Ecliptic

This is the plane of the Earth’s orbit projected onto the celestial sphere. Effectively this is the apparent path of the Sun through the sky. Since the main planets of the solar system orbit in more or less the same plane, give or take a few degrees, they are always found close to the ecliptic.

Conjunction

This is when a planet has the same longitude as the Sun. A planet can only be observed at conjunction if there is a total eclipse or if it transits the Sun. Unlike the other planets, Mercury and Venus have two types of conjunction, inferior when the planet lies between the Sun and the Earth, superior when it lies on the opposite side of the Sun to the Earth. At inferior conjunction, if the inclination of the orbit of Mercury or Venus coincide with that of the Earth, a transit is observed. These are rare phenomena.

Atmosphere

The gaseous mantle surrounding a planet, star or other astronomical body.

It is thought that the atmosphere of the Earth is a secondary atmosphere. The theory is that the original (primary) atmosphere was lost during the T-Tauri stage of the Sun’s evolution. Volcanoes gradually replaced this with an atmosphere of methane, carbon dioxide and water vapour. The current atmosphere evolved from this. The oceans were formed as the water vapour condensed as Earth cooled down. When plants containing chlorophyll evolved, they used the carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and introduced oxygen into our atmosphere. Ultraviolet radiation converted some oxygen to ozone in the upper atmosphere and was therefore absorbed and with the development of the ozone layer, life on earth could colonise the land.

Astrometry

The branch of astronomy dealing with the movements and positions of celestial bodies.

Astrometry dates back to the earliest days of astronomy when the first star catalogues were being produced, e.g. that of Hipparchus in 190BC. Early measurements were probably made using cross-staffs to measure the relative positions of stars from one-another and from features on the horizon. As time progressed, more sophisticated instruments were used, such as the astrolabe.

The same principles are still used in modern astronomy but have become very precise and can measure the wobbles in the movements of stars that could indicate the presence of extrasolar planets or to find astrometric binary star systems.

Astrometry also includes the measurement of parallax. If you observe an object from two widely spaced locations, you will measure a slight difference in position. From the annular differences in position and knowing the distance between the two locations of observation, the distance of stars can be determined. That was taken to a new level with the Hipparcos satellite launched by the ESA. Early parallax measurements were limited to relatively close stars, however, the distances of several cepheid variable stars was measured. Thes can then be used as ‘standard candles’ when seen in distant galaxies to give a reasonable estimate of their distances. Further refinement to astrometric determination of distant objects came with the advent of interferometry.

As with all measurements of the extremely large and extremely small, astrometric measurements require careful error correction. As knowledge and instrumentation improves, distances and speeds of star movements are constantly being refined and it is believed that it is now possible to see the peturbations in stellar motion caused by planets not much more massive than the Earth.

Accretion Disc

An accretion disc is a disc of material formed under the influence of gravity. It forms from smaller particles which are drawn towards the central body by the influence of Gravity.

The central body is generally a star although it can also be the nucleus of a galaxy or a black hole.

Also the rotating disc of material formed around a Black Hole.

The force of gravity is also reponsible for the emission of electromagnetic radiation from the disc. Gravity compresses the particles of the disc, heating them and giving rise to the radiation. The radiation wavelength depends on the strength of the gravitational force. Accretion discs around a black hole for instance can emit X-rays as the gravitational forces are immense. Accretion discs around forming or newly formed stars will only emit infrared as the gravitational forces are less, leading to a lower level of energy and therfore longer wavelengths of radiation. The Hubble Space Telescope is alleged to have seen and measured an accretion disc around a black hole using gravitational lensing to work out the colour profile.

The accretion discs around black holes and quasars are probably the most efficient way of generating energy from matter known, with about 10% matter to energy conversion. It is thought that accretion discs could be the source of the Gamma Ray Bursts seen from time to time in the universe. The Eddington Luminosity of Eddington Limit defines the point at which the outflow of energy from a star exactly balances the inward pull of gravity i.e. it is stable. Super eddington accretion discs are thought to be the source of the gamma ray bursters. Turbulence can cause material to fall inwards which is then converted into high energy radiation. These are very short lived events

Accretion discs round young stars supply the material for planets to form.

Accretion discs are also found in binary star systems. It happens when the two stars are of unequal ages and sizes and close together – the younger one will have lived out its life and become a white dwarf or even neutron star, then, when the older one reaches the end of its main sequence life, it expands. It it expands sufficiently, the outer envelope of gases can be more strongly attracted by the gravity of the smaller star and forms an accretion disc around the other.

The physics of an accretion disc is way beyond what we intend to explain here, however, if you want a detailed explanation, click here.

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